Women are much less visible in terms of image frequency, with selective value placed on certain kinds of female subjects across the decades, choices often shaped by stereotypes as well as foreign policy preferences. This study documents how iterative longitudinal patterns of visual grammar contribute towards the layered marginalization of women within narratives. It analyses thirty years of photographic coverage given by an elite western publication, Time magazine to women from two countries with problematic place brands: Iran and Pakistan. This article provides a historical perspective on how institutionalized articulations of gender in visual news narratives may contribute towards the erosion of a country’s soft power potential. Another "founding father" of nation branding is Wally Olins, also a British brand consultant, whose work for governments, speaking engagements, and publications (e.g., Olins, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2005) are commonly referenced. He is undoubtedly the most prolific author on the subject (e.g., Anholt, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006a, 2007, 2008), and he has played a key role in establishing nation branding through consulting practice, speaking engagements, and efforts to institutionalize it as an academic field with scientific legitimacy. 1 Anholt claims that he coined the term "nation branding" in 1996 (, n.d.).
The ultimate goal of this mapping exercise is to stimulate more work informed by critical theories on the global phenomenon of nation branding. Finally, some directions for future critical research on nation branding and its implications are outlined.
Second, the article proposes a reflexive conceptual map which identifies four types of research orientations across disciplines. The discussion organizes the sources in three categories, teasing out key themes within and across them. It begins with an extensive overview of scholarly writing on nation branding, based on 186 sources across disciplines. This article discusses the growing body of research on nation branding, arguing for an expanded critical research agenda on this topic.
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